These notes are a summary of concepts presented in “On seeing human: a three-factor theory of anthropomorphism.”
Epley N, Waytz A, Cacioppo JT. On seeing human: a three-factor theory of anthropomorphism. Psychol Rev. 2007 Oct;114(4):864-86. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.114.4.864. PMID: 17907867.
- Nature of Anthropomorphism
- Involves inferences about nonhuman agents’ unobservable traits
- Anchored in accessible human knowledge, corrected and applied to nonhuman targets
- Represents a specific inductive process of attributing human traits to nonhuman agents
- Influenced by moral consideration, respect, and concern
- Affects behavioral expectations and interpretations of agents’ actions
- Key Determinants of Anthropomorphism (SEEK Framework)
- Elicited agent knowledge
- Activation and application of human knowledge for reasoning about nonhumans
- Effectance motivation
- Need for effective interaction with the environment to explain and predict behaviors
- Sociality motivation
- Desire for social connections fulfilled through humanlike perceptions of nonhuman agents
- Elicited agent knowledge
- Mechanisms of Anthropomorphism
- Acquisition
- Early acquisition of detailed human representations vs. sparse nonhuman representations
- Activation
- Ready accessibility of self-knowledge as an intuitive anchor for reasoning about nonhumans
- Adjustment
- Correction of anthropomorphic anchors when motivated and able to engage in effortful processing
- Application
- Reliance on egocentric defaults or integration of alternate nonanthropomorphic representations
- Acquisition
- Variables Influencing Anthropomorphism
- Dispositional
- Traits like need for cognition, closure, and chronic loneliness affect reliance on anthropomorphic reasoning
- Higher need for cognition moves towards less anthropomorphism when alternate representations are accessible
- Need for closure move toward an increased reliance on anthropomorphism to reduce uncertainty and ambiguity
- Chronic loneliness: Increases accessibility and application of anthropomorphic representations, particularly with novel agents.
- Traits like need for cognition, closure, and chronic loneliness affect reliance on anthropomorphic reasoning
- Situational
- Factors like similarity, interaction predictability, and social disconnection influence activation of anthropomorphism
- Developmental
- Anthropomorphism is strongest early in life, diminishes as alternate nonhuman representations are acquired
- Cultural
- Norms, ideologies, and levels of exposure to nonhuman agents influence anthropomorphic tendencies
- Urban-industrialized vs. rural-underdeveloped populations: Differences in perceived applicability of human concepts in reasoning about nonhumans
- Alternate knowledge structures influence reasoning variability across cultures
- Dispositional
- Similarity and Anthropomorphism
- Motion similarity
- Biological or socially interactive motion increases anthropomorphic attribution
- Nonhuman agents moving at human-like speeds are seen as having mental states
- Biological or socially interactive motion increases anthropomorphic attribution
- Motion similarity
- Morphological Similarity
- Humanlike physical features (e.g., faces, bodies) increase anthropomorphism
- Marketers use humanlike designs in products to evoke emotions and drive consumer behavior
- Developmental and Cognitive Basis
- Theory of mind development is critical for anthropomorphism
- Representations of self and others influence anthropomorphic tendencies
- Over time, exposure to nonhuman agents diminishes anthropomorphism due to richer alternative representations
- Role of Motivation in Anthropomorphism
- Effectance Motivation
- Driven by a desire to understand, predict, and reduce uncertainty
- Anthropomorphism increases when uncertainty or incentives for predictability are high
- Novelty, unpredictability, and violations of expectations heighten anthropomorphism
- Threatening or impactful agents are anthropomorphized more readily than powerless ones
- Likelihood of future interaction increases anthropomorphism
- Stable dispositional influences
- Need for closure and desire for control heighten anthropomorphism
- Facilitates activation and application of anthropomorphic representations for understanding and predicting behavior
- Effectance Motivation
- Sociality Motivation
- Motivated by the need for social connection and approval
- Anthropomorphism serves as a substitute for social connection, particularly in the absence of human interaction
- Increases baseline accessibility of social cues and traits
- Enhances search for social connection sources, particularly during loneliness or isolation
- Need for social connection: Satisfied through anthropomorphizing nonhuman agents
- Egocentric Simulation and Anthropomorphic Reasoning
- Self-concept and human category knowledge provide cognitive anchors for reasoning
- Effortful processing reduces reliance on egocentric anchors and increases activation of alternate representations
- Anthropomorphism as an Inductive Process
- Utilizes existing knowledge representations to infer properties, characteristics, and mental states of nonhuman agents
- Alternative nonanthropomorphic models of agency (e.g., scientific or cultural knowledge) diminish reliance on anthropomorphism
- Weak vs. Strong Forms of Anthropomorphism
- Strong Forms
- Explicit belief in humanlike traits of nonhuman agents
- Weak Forms
- Metaphorical reasoning that still impacts behavior significantly
- Strong Forms
- Individual Differences in Anthropomorphism
- Need for closure
- Individuals high in need for closure may be particularly inclined to anthropomorphism
- Desire for control
- Those with a strong desire for control exhibit vigorous attributional activities to explain behavior, focusing on anthropomorphic concepts such as intentions and desires. This increases the sense of efficacy in social interaction
- Need for closure
- Situational Influences on Anthropomorphism
- Future Interaction and Predictability
- Anticipated future interaction increases the tendency to anthropomorphize agents to gain predictability and understanding
- Increased activation of anthropomorphic representations for reasoning about nonhuman agents
- Expectancy violations heighten focus on goals, intentions, or motivations, leading to increased anthropomorphism
- Predictability and control are pivotal to anthropomorphic tendencies
- Anticipated future interaction increases the tendency to anthropomorphize agents to gain predictability and understanding
- Future Interaction and Predictability
- Developmental and Cultural Influences
- Developmental Factors
- Attaining competence
- Effectance motivation drives the desire to comprehend and control the environment
- Attachment styles
- Insecure-anxious individuals may anthropomorphize nonhuman agents to seek stable relationships
- Developmental Factors
- Cultural Variability
- Uncertainty avoidance
- Cultures high in uncertainty avoidance are more prone to anthropomorphism to establish comprehensibility and predictability
- Individualism and Collectivism
- Individualistic cultures may see more anthropomorphism due to a lower general sense of social connection
- Collectivist cultures may anthropomorphize more intensely in response to momentary isolation
- Uncertainty avoidance
- Behavioral Traits and Attributes
- Supportive anthropomorphic traits
- Thoughtful, considerate, sympathetic
- Nonsupportive anthropomorphic traits
- Devious, embarrassable, jealous, creative
- Behavioral traits
- Aggressive, agile, energetic, fearful, muscular
- Supportive anthropomorphic traits